Self efficacy (Albert Bandura)

"I am the master of my fate; I am the captain of my soul" (W.E. Henley)

A sense of having control; a perception that one can perform effectively; more willing to try to solve a problem; don't give up easily; learn that one can reach one's goals through one's own efforts

Wortman (1975) people are more likely to attribute successes to themselves if they actively think of their own objectives as they carry out a performance

Desire for control

Illusion of control we often exaggerate the amount of control we have over our lives (Langer, 1975; the lottery study); early success led to a belief in control, Langer & Roth (1975) - coin toss - false feedback given to Ss - everyone succeeded and failed equally but some succeeded early on in the game and some failed early in the game - findings: early success led to the illusion of greater success (primacy effect) and to the belief that they would do better subsequently

Having a sense of control reduces the stress of aversive events Glass & Singer (1972) people were exposed to either controllable or uncontrollable noise; all heard the same amount of noise; however, those in the controllable condition were less aroused than those in the uncontrollable condition; same study done with electric shock (Geer, Davison, & Gatchel, 1970). In legal suits, if we feel that we have some control we are less stressed

Elderly - self-induced dependency; uncontrollable rewards lead to apathy; when the elderly could control visitors, select from a menu; decide what they wanted to do (Langer & Rodin , 1976) they not only felt better, they lived longer.

Learned Helplessness (Seligman and Abramson) noncontingency of outcomes (outcomes independent of behavior); attributions determine depression; if attribute the effects to the self then become depressed; if attribute the effects to external causes do not become depressed (kids from abusive homes)

Locus of Control Julian Rotter

Internal control - attribute successes and failures to our own abilities; a belief that we are responsible for the outcomes of our behaviors

External control - attribute successes and failures to events outside our control (fate, chance)

Expectations of future successes or failures depend on the perceived causes of the success or failure. If we believe that we are responsible it is motivational; if we believe that it is due to luck - no control and no predictions of future performance

Perceived control can affect what incentives motivate effective performance (extrinsic rewards - approval by others; intrinsic rewards - pride in a job well done; self-approval)

Bacon & Ganz (1972) children with high external scores did better when teacher showed approval while high internals did better when they could see the correct answer for themselves