Mongol Conquests, 1210-1260

Early nomadic empires of Inner Asia

Xiongnu 209 BC-155 CE

Turks/Uighurs 6th-9th c. CE

Eurasian Steppe

10-20 in. of rain annually

Mongolian Steppe

Orkhon River Valley

Base of Turks, Uighurs and Mongols

*Chinggis [Genghis] Khan, “Oceanic King” (ca. 1167-1227)

Born Temujin

Lake Baikal region

Son of minor chief

United Mongols

Warfare

Surrendered tribes spared

Alliances

Marriage politics

Multiple wives in steppe society vs. wife-concubines in China

Khuriltai (assembly), 1206

Capital at Karakorum

Skaff at Karakorum archaeological site in 2016 with Dr. Jan Bemmann, head of Mongolian-German Karakorum Expedition

Why are we standing next to evidence of state-forced Chinese migrants at Karakorum?

Campaigns of conquest

Mongol Conquests

Khan of Khans	Southward	Westward
Chinggis Khan, r. 1206-1227	Xi Xia (Tangut), 1210 Jin (Jurchen) Beijing, 1211-5 Xi Xia (Tangut), Chinggis Khan killed, 1227	Khwarazm Shah: Bukhara & Samarqand, 1219-1221
Ögödei, r. 1229-41	Jin (Jurchen), Kaifeng, 1234	Russia & Ukraine, 1237-40
Güyük, r. 1246-48
Mongke, r. 1251-1259		Iran & Iraq, 1258-60

Factors determining success of Mongol armies

Personal ability of Genghis Khan

Chinggis Khan Memorial, Mongolia

According to Skaff, why does modern Mongolian nationalism give too much credit to Chinggis Khan while ignoring the contributions of his son, Ögödei, and grandson, Mongke?

Quality of the Mongol soldiers

Tactics of terror

Capture of Jin capital, Zhongdu, 1215

Military organization, planning, discipline

Reorganization of tribes

Units of 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000 (tumen)

Willingness to employ conquered peoples

Turks: Cavalry

China, Russia, and Iran: infantry, siege weapons

Favorable weather in Mongolia during early conquests

Hessl, Amy, et al. “Tree Rings, Climate, and People in Central Asia,” 2013.

Extremely dry, 1175-1190

Extremely wet, 1211-1226

Compare with Hansen, p. 311

Succession to Khan of Khans

Khan of Khans	Relationship to Chinggis/Predecessor	Reign
Chinggis Khan		1206-1227
Ögödei	Son	1229-41
Güyük	Grandson/Nephew	1246-48
Mongke	Grandson/Cousin	1251-1259
Khubilai Khan	Grandson/Younger Brother	1260-1294

*Khubilai Khan (1215-94)

Grandson of Genghis Khan

Brother of Mongke

Born North China

Defeated brother Arigh Böke in civil war

Empire divided into khanates

Khan of Khans, r. 1260-1294

Founded Yuan dynasty, 1271

Conquered S. Song, 1279

Conquest of South

Ecological barriers

Insufficient grasslands
Terrain unsuited to cavalry warfare

Waterways
Forests
Mountains

Overcoming barriers by 1279

Chinese Infantry
Navy
Siege warfare

Xiangyang, 1267-1272

Middle Eastern counterweight trebuchet

Mongol Impact on China

Semu “People of Various Categories”

Middle Easterners and others (Marco Polo)

Agriculture

Crop exchanges

Economy

Long distance trade

Technological exchanges

Transfer of Technology and Goods

Iran: Cobalt blue glaze + China: Porcelain=Chinese Blue-glazed Porcelain

Smithsonian Museums Freer Gallery of Art, Room 12: "The Peacock Room in Blue and White"

Gunpowder and firearms

China Gunpowder 6th c.

Fire arrows, 9th c.

Mythbusters reconstruction of fire arrow weapon, ca. 1500

Bombs 11th c.

Cannon 13th c.

Mongol Empire

Rapid spread of technology