Qin Dynasty-Han Dynasty Northern Frontier 215 BCE to 54 BCE

Threats to Han Order, ca. 150 BCE

Internal

Kingdoms on decline

External

*Xiongnu

*Pastoral Nomads

Eurasian Steppe, 10-20 in. rain annually
Desert, under 10 in. rain annually

Herding Economy

Positive: Survival in semiarid regions

Sheep, horses, goats, cattle

Milk and meat

Wool, skins, transport

Sheep and goats crossing a highway in Mongolia

Negative: Disease, predators, weather

Kumiss or Airag

Fermented mare’s milk

Mares tethered for milking in Mongolia

Skaff enjoying the final product back at the camp

Yurt or Ger

“The dwelling in which [the Mongols] sleep has as its base a circle of interlaced sticks…they cover it with white felt.” (William of Rubruck)

Modern Ger in Mongolia

Kids in the modern Ger

Pastoral Nomadic Warfare

Cavalry technology complex

Horse domestication and bit, 3500 BCE

Jacket, pants, belt and boots!, ca. 1000 BCE

Compound bow, c. 800 BCE

Saddle, c. 500 BCE?

Reigns, bridle, c. 500 BCE?

Scythian grave goods, Pazyryk, Altai Mountains, 5th-4th c. BCE

Warring States Interactions

Mounted cavalry “Hardware Upgrade”

Traditionally attributed to King Wuling of Zhao, 307 BCE

Qin policies

Northern Campaign, 215 BCE

Ordos cleared of pastoral nomads

Wall building

*Xiongnu Challenge (209 BCE to 155 CE)

Maodun’s centralization

Shanyu, r. 209-174 BCE

Di Cosmo hypothesis

Connected to Qin’s northern campaign

Han Dynasty Frontier Policy

Xiongnu diplomacy and raids

Emperor Gaozu surrounded at Pingcheng, 200 BCE

*Alliance of Peace and Kinship or "Peace and Affinity" (Li Feng, p. 269), 198 BCE

1) Annual payments to Xiongnu
2) Han Princess as wife for Shanyu
3) Both states as equals
4) "Great wall" as boundary

Silk and woolen textile remains from Xiongnu graves, Noin Ula, Mongolia

Emperor Wu (r. 141-87 BCE) the Consolidator and Warrior

Decision to Fight Xiongnu

Practical motives

Perceived failure of “Peace and Kinship” relations

Raiding

Ideological motives

Loss of face to “Barbarians”

Expansion of Tax Base

Eliminated Power of Kingdoms in east

Iron, salt, and liquor monopolies

Intelligence gathering

Zhang Qian’s mission to Yuezhi, 138-128 BCE

Military expansion, 133-115 BCE

Xiongnu advantages: mobile cavalry, strategic retreat

Han advantages: greater manpower, wealth, and supplies

Northern Campaigns

Re-capture of Ordos, 124 BCE

Mongolia campaign, 119 BCE

Xiongnu strategic retreat

Western Campaigns

Gansu (Hexi) Captured

121-119, 111 BCE

Colonization by over 1 million, 115-72 BCE

Han settlement of soldiers and families on frontier

Xiongnu Crisis

Discontent of subordinate tribes

Lost grazing land

Lost tribute

Civil wars over succession, 60-55 BCE

Northern and Southern Xiongnu split, 54 BCE

*Tributary relations, 54 BCE

Emperor Xuan, r. 74-49 BCE å

1) S. Xiongnu prince as Han hostage
2) S. Xiongnu pay homage to Han emperor
3) S. Xiongnu give tribute to Han emperor
4) Han emperor gives gifts

Unwritten mutual benefits

Military alliance against N. Xiongnu

Increased trade